Robert A. Bjork
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View article: Why Empirical Forgetting Curves Deviate from Actual Forgetting Rates: A Distribution Model of Forgetting
Why Empirical Forgetting Curves Deviate from Actual Forgetting Rates: A Distribution Model of Forgetting Open
For over a century, forgetting research has shown that recall decreases along a power or exponential function over time. It is tempting to assume that empirical forgetting curves are equivalent to the rate at which individual memories are …
View article: General knowledge and detailed memory benefit from different training sequences.
General knowledge and detailed memory benefit from different training sequences. Open
Real-world decisions require understanding generalities (e.g., sorting an album collection by genre) and the ability to remember specific events (where one acquired a particular album). Discriminating between broad categories versus indivi…
View article: Learning from errors versus explicit instruction in preparation for a test that counts
Learning from errors versus explicit instruction in preparation for a test that counts Open
Background Although the generation of errors has been thought, traditionally, to impair learning, recent studies indicate that, under particular feedback conditions, the commission of errors may have a beneficial effect. Aims This study in…
View article: The effects of lecture speed and note‐taking on memory for educational material
The effects of lecture speed and note‐taking on memory for educational material Open
The use of pre‐recorded lecture videos as a primary mode of instruction during online learning has allowed students flexibility in how they self‐regulate their learning. Although increasing lectures up to 2x speed has little cost on memory…
View article: Going beyond the spacing effect: Does it matter how time on a task is distributed?
Going beyond the spacing effect: Does it matter how time on a task is distributed? Open
We assessed the effects of removing some constraints that characterise traditional experiments on the effects of spaced, rather than massed, study opportunities. In five experiments—using lists of to-be-remembered words—we examined the eff…
View article: Does Spelling Still Matter—and If So, How Should It Be Taught? Perspectives from Contemporary and Historical Research
Does Spelling Still Matter—and If So, How Should It Be Taught? Perspectives from Contemporary and Historical Research Open
A century ago, spelling skills were highly valued and widely taught in schools using traditional methods, such as weekly lists, drill exercises, and low- and high-stakes spelling tests. That approach was featured in best-selling textbooks …
View article: Pan, Rickard, and Bjork (2021) Does spelling still matter—And if so, how should it be taught?
Pan, Rickard, and Bjork (2021) Does spelling still matter—And if so, how should it be taught? Open
A century ago, spelling skills were highly valued and widely taught in schools using traditional methods, such as weekly lists, drill exercises, and low- and high-stakes spelling tests. That approach was featured in best-selling textbooks …
View article: Dissociations between learners’ predicted and actual effects of level of processing and assigned point value on subsequent memory performance
Dissociations between learners’ predicted and actual effects of level of processing and assigned point value on subsequent memory performance Open
Prior work (e.g., Koriat, 1997) has shown that when learners predict how well they will remember an item being studied (metacognitive monitoring), they account for certain factors that predict later memory, but ignore other relevant factor…
View article: Feedback at Test Can Reverse the Retrieval-Effort Effect
Feedback at Test Can Reverse the Retrieval-Effort Effect Open
The testing effect refers to the finding that retrieving previously encoded material typically improves subsequent recall performance more on a later test than does restudying that material. Storm et al. (2014) demonstrated, however, that …
View article: Forgetting as the friend of learning: implications for teaching and self-regulated learning
Forgetting as the friend of learning: implications for teaching and self-regulated learning Open
One of the “important peculiarities” of human learning (Bjork RA and Bjork EL. From Learning Processes to Cognitive Processes: Essays in Honor of William K. Estes, 1992, p. 35–67) is that certain conditions that produce forgetting—that is,…
View article: On the learning benefits of confidence-weighted testing
On the learning benefits of confidence-weighted testing Open
Taking multiple-choice practice tests with competitive incorrect alternatives can enhance performance on related but different questions appearing on a later cued-recall test (Little et al., Psychol Sci 23:1337-1344, 2012). This benefit of…
View article: Impaired Retrieval Inhibition of Threat Material in Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Impaired Retrieval Inhibition of Threat Material in Generalized Anxiety Disorder Open
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by cognitive biases toward threat-relevant information, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. We translated a retrieval-practice paradigm from cognitive science to investigate impair…
View article: Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning
Desirable Difficulties in Vocabulary Learning Open
In this article we discuss the role of desirable difficulties in vocabulary learning from two perspectives, one having to do with identifying conditions of learning that impose initial challenges to the learner but then benefit later reten…